1Department of Production and Industrial Engineering, National Institute of Technology Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
Magnesium-based biodegradable composites offer significant advantages over nondegradable materials for biomedical implants. These materials degrade gradually in physiological environments, thereby reducing stress shielding and eliminating the need for secondary implant removal surgeries. This review explores how alloying elements (e.g., Zn, Ca, Sr) in the magnesium matrix and reinforcing phases (e.g., hydroxyapatite, SiC, TiC) in metal matrix composites influence degradation kinetics, mechanical integrity, and ion release behaviour. Proper regulation of the degradation rate is critical for maintaining mechanical support during the healing phase while ensuring biocompatibility. This study expands the use of magnesium composites in implantable medical devices. Some examples are orthopaedic implants, circulatory stents, bone fixation devices, and soft tissue scaffolds. The above uses demonstrate the ability of magnesium composites to improve patient outcomes and reduce implant-related procedures through gradual breakdown and tissue regeneration. The review also reports the biodegradation control, biocompatibility, manufacturing scale-up, and regulatory requirements for clinical translation. Successful commercialisation depends on balancing the degradation rate with mechanical support, limiting cytotoxicity, and meeting regulatory standards. In conclusion, magnesium-based biodegradable composites have the potential to revolutionise biomedical implants. The unique combination of mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and regulated biodegradation improves patient outcomes and therapy efficacy. Medical device design and regenerative medicine will benefit from magnesium composites as researchers improve synthesis methods, material properties, and overcome barriers.
Biodegradable, alloying elements, reinforcement, osteogenesis, corrosion, cytotoxicity
Abdalla M., Joplin A., Elahinia M., & Ibrahim H. (2020). Corrosion modeling of magnesium and its alloys for biomedical applications: Review. Corrosion and Materials Degradation, 1(2), 219–248. https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd1020011
Adetunla A., Fide–Akwuobi A., Benjamin H., Adeyinka A., & Kolawole A. (2022). A study of degradable orthopedic implant: An insight in magnesium metal matrix composites. Heliyon, 8(9), e10503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10503
Agarwal S., Curtin J., Duffy B., & Jaiswal S. (2016). Biodegradable magnesium alloys for orthopaedic applications: A review on corrosion, biocompatibility and surface modifications. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 68, 948–963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2016.06.020
Ahadi F., Azadi M., Biglari M., Bodaghi M., & Khaleghian A. (2023). Evaluation of coronary stents: A review of types, materials, processing techniques, design, and problems. Heliyon, 9(2), e13575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13575
Aikin M., Shalomeev V., Kukhar V., Kostryzhev A., Kuziev I., Kulynych V., Dykha O., Dytyniuk V., Shapoval O., Zagorskis A., Burko V., Khliestova O., Titov V., & Hrushko O. (2025). Recent advances in biodegradable magnesium alloys for medical implants: Evolution, innovations, and clinical translation. Crystals, 15(8), 671. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst15080671
Alahelisten A., Bergman F., Olsson M., & Hogmark S. (1993). On the wear of aluminium and magnesium metal matrix composites. Wear, 165(2), 221–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043–1648(93)90338–M
Albaraghtheh T., Willumeit–Römer R., & Zeller–Plumhoff B. (2022). In silico studies of magnesium–based implants: A review of the current stage and challenges. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 10(11), 2968–2996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2022.09.029
Allavikutty R., Gupta P., Santra T. S., & Rengaswamy J. (2021). Additive manufacturing of Mg alloys for biomedical applications: Current status and challenges. Current Opinion in Biomedical Engineering, 18, 100276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobme.2021.100276
Al–Shalawi F. D., Azmah Hanim M. A., Ariffin M. K. A., Looi Seng Kim C., Brabazon D., Calin R., & Al–Osaimi M. O. (2023). Biodegradable synthetic polymer in orthopaedic application: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 74, 540–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.12.254
Al–Shalawi F. D., Mohamed Ariff A. H., Jung D.–W., Mohd Ariffin M. K. A., Seng Kim C. L., Brabazon D., & Al–Osaimi M. O. (2023). Biomaterials as implants in the orthopedic field for regenerative medicine: Metal versus synthetic polymers. Polymers, 15(12), 2601. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122601
Amukarimi S., & Mozafari M. (2021). Biodegradable magnesium–based biomaterials: An overview of challenges and opportunities. MedComm, 2(2), 123–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/mco2.59
Anbuchezhiyan G., Mohan B., & Karthikeyan R. V. (2015). Development of magnesium matrix syntactic foams processed through powder metallurgy techniques. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 766–767, 281–286. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.766–767.281
Arokiasamy S., & Anand Ronald B. (2018). Enhanced properties of magnesium based metal matrix composites via friction stir processing. Materials Today: Proceedings, 5(2), 6934–6939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2017.11.355
Avery D., Morandini L., Celt N., Bergey L., Simmons J., Martin R. K., Donahue H. J., & Olivares–Navarrete R. (2023). Immune cell response to orthopedic and craniofacial biomaterials depends on biomaterial composition. Acta Biomaterialia, 161, 285–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2023.03.007
Bairagi D., & Mandal S. (2022). A comprehensive review on biocompatible Mg–based alloys as temporary orthopaedic implants: Current status, challenges, and future prospects. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 10(3), 627–669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2021.09.005
Bajakke P. A., Malik V. R., & Deshpande A. S. (2019). Particulate metal matrix composites and their fabrication via friction stir processing—A review. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 34(8), 833–881. https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2019.1605181
Bakhsheshi–Rad H. R., Hamzah E., Fereidouni–Lotfabadi A., Daroonparvar M., Yajid M. A. M., Mezbahul–Islam M., Kasiri–Asgarani M., & Medraj M. (2014). Microstructure and bio–corrosion behavior of Mg–Zn and Mg–Zn–Ca alloys for biomedical applications. Materials and Corrosion, 65(12), 1178–1187. https://doi.org/10.1002/maco.201307588
Bakhsheshi–Rad H. R., Hamzah E., Ismail A. F., Aziz M., Kasiri–Asgarani M., Ghayour H., Razzaghi M., & Hadisi Z. (2017). In vitro corrosion behavior, bioactivity, and antibacterial performance of the silver–doped zinc oxide coating on magnesium alloy. Materials and Corrosion, 68(11), 1228–1236. https://doi.org/10.1002/maco.201709597
Bakhsheshi–Rad H. R., Hamzah E., Kasiri–Asgarani M., Saud S. N., Yaghoubidoust F., & Akbari E. (2016). Structure, corrosion behavior, and antibacterial properties of nano–silica/graphene oxide coating on biodegradable magnesium alloy for biomedical applications. Vacuum, 131, 106–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacuum.2016.05.021
Balakrishnan M., Dinaharan I., Palanivel R., & Sivaprakasam R. (2015). Synthesize of AZ31/TiC magnesium matrix composites using friction stir processing. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 3(1), 76–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2014.12.007
Ben Amara H., Martinez D. C., Shah F. A., Loo A. J., Emanuelsson L., Norlindh B., Willumeit–Römer R., Plocinski T., Swieszkowski W., Palmquist A., Omar O., & Thomsen P. (2023). Magnesium implant degradation provides immunomodulatory and proangiogenic effects and attenuates peri–implant fibrosis in soft tissues. Bioactive Materials, 26, 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.02.014
Bommala V. K., Krishna M. G., & Rao C. T. (2019). Magnesium matrix composites for biomedical applications: A review. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 7(1), 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2018.11.001
Buck E., Li H., & Cerruti M. (2020). Surface modification strategies to improve the osseointegration of poly(etheretherketone) and its composites. Macromolecular Bioscience, 20(2), 1900271. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.201900271
Castro M. M., Lopes D. R., Soares R. B., dos Santos D. M. M., Nunes E. H. M., Lins V. F. C., Pereira P. H. R., Isaac A., Langdon T. G., & Figueiredo R. B. (2019). Magnesium–based bioactive composites processed at room temperature. Materials, 12(16), 2609. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12162609
Cerqueira A., Romero–Gavilán F., García–Arnáez I., Martinez–Ramos C., Ozturan S., Izquierdo R., Azkargorta M., Elortza F., Gurruchaga M., Suay J., & Goñi I. (2021). Characterization of magnesium doped sol–gel biomaterial for bone tissue regeneration: The effect of Mg ion in protein adsorption. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 125, 112114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2021.112114
Chagnon M., Guy L.–G., & Jackson N. (2019). Evaluation of magnesium–based medical devices in preclinical studies: Challenges and points to consider. Toxicologic Pathology, 47(3), 390–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192623318816936
Chandra G., & Pandey A. (2020). Biodegradable bone implants in orthopedic applications: A review. Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, 40(2), 596–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.02.003
Chandra G., & Pandey A. (2022). Preparation strategies for Mg–alloys for biodegradable orthopaedic implants and other biomedical applications: A review. IRBM, 43(3), 229–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irbm.2020.06.003
Chen L. Q., Dong Q., Zhao M. J., Bi J., & Kanetake N. (2005). Synthesis of TiC/Mg composites with interpenetrating networks by in situ reactive infiltration process. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 408(1–2), 125–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2005.07.036
Chen Y., Dou J., Yu H., & Chen C. (2019). Degradable magnesium–based alloys for biomedical applications: The role of critical alloying elements. Journal of Biomaterials Applications, 33(10), 1348–1372. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885328219834656
Cho D. H., Avey T., Nam K. H., Dean D., & Luo A. A. (2022). In vitro and in vivo assessment of squeeze–cast Mg–Zn–Ca–Mn alloys for biomedical applications. Acta Biomaterialia, 150, 442–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2022.07.040
Chou D.–T., Hong D., Saha P., Ferrero J., Lee B., Tan Z., Dong Z., & Kumta P. N. (2013). In vitro and in vivo corrosion, cytocompatibility and mechanical properties of biodegradable Mg–Y–Ca–Zr alloys as implant materials. Acta Biomaterialia, 9(10), 8518–8533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2013.06.025
Choudhary L., & Singh Raman R. K. (2015). Mechanical integrity of magnesium alloys for biomedical applications. In Surface modification of magnesium and its alloys for biomedical applications (pp. 179–204). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978–1–78242–077–4.00005–X
da Conceicao T. F., Scharnagl N., Blawert C., Dietzel W., & Kainer K. U. (2010). Surface modification of magnesium alloy AZ31 by hydrofluoric acid treatment and its effect on the corrosion behaviour. Thin Solid Films, 518(18), 5209–5218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2010.04.114
Daroonparvar M., Bakhsheshi–Rad H. R., Saberi A., Razzaghi M., Kasar A. K., Ramakrishna S., Menezes P. L., Misra M., Ismail A. F., Sharif S., & Berto F. (2022). Surface modification of magnesium alloys using thermal and solid–state cold spray processes: Challenges and latest progresses. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 10(8), 2025–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2022.07.012
Dash D., Samanta S., & Rai R. N. (2018). Studies on synthesis of magnesium based metal matrix composites (MMCs). Materials Today: Proceedings, 5(9), 20110–20116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.06.378
Delavar H., Mostahsan A. J., & Ibrahim H. (2023). Corrosion and corrosion–fatigue behavior of magnesium metal matrix composites for bio–implant applications: A review. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 11(4), 1125–1161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2023.04.010
Dinaharan I., & Akinlabi E. T. (2018). Low cost metal matrix composites based on aluminum, magnesium and copper reinforced with fly ash prepared using friction stir processing. Composites Communications, 9, 22–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2018.04.007
Dinesh Kumar S., Ravichandran M., Sakthivelu S., Meignanamoorthy M., Chanakyan C., & Alagarsamy S. V. (2020). Mechanical properties of magnesium–silicon carbide composite fabricated through powder metallurgy route. Materials Today: Proceedings, 27, 1137–1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.01.592
Ding Y., Wen C., Hodgson P., & Li Y. (2014). Effects of alloying elements on the corrosion behavior and biocompatibility of biodegradable magnesium alloys: A review. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 2(14), 1912–1933. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3TB21746A
Dong Q., Chen L. Q., Zhao M. J., & Bi J. (2004). Synthesis of TiCp reinforced magnesium matrix composites by in situ reactive infiltration process. Materials Letters, 58(6), 920–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2003.07.037
Drelich J. W., Sikora–Jasinska M., Mostaed E., Liu H., Maier P., Seitz J.–M., & Hort N. (2020). Biodegradable materials for medical applications II. JOM, 72(5), 1830–1832. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837–020–04129–0
Eliezer A., & Witte F. (2010). Corrosion behavior of magnesium alloys in biomedical environments. Advanced Materials Research, 95, 17–20. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.95.17
Erbel R., Di Mario C., Bartunek J., Bonnier J., de Bruyne B., Eberli F. R., Erne P., Haude M., Heublein B., Horrigan M., Ilsley C., Böse D., Koolen J., Lüscher T. F., Weissman N., & Waksman R. (2007). Temporary scaffolding of coronary arteries with bioabsorbable magnesium stents: A prospective, non–randomised multicentre trial. The Lancet, 369(9576), 1869–1875. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140–6736(07)60853–8
Espiritu J., Berangi M., Yiannakou C., Silva E., Francischello R., Kuehne A., Niendorf T., Könneker S., Willumeit–Römer R., & Seitz J.–M. (2022). Evaluating metallic artefact of biodegradable magnesium–based implants in magnetic resonance imaging. Bioactive Materials, 15, 382–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.11.035
Espiritu J., Meier M., & Seitz J.–M. (2021). The current performance of biodegradable magnesium–based implants in magnetic resonance imaging: A review. Bioactive Materials, 6(12), 4360–4367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.04.012
Fu Q., Saiz E., Rahaman M. N., & Tomsia A. P. (2011). Bioactive glass scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: State of the art and future perspectives. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 31(7), 1245–1256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2011.04.022
García–Romero A. M., Egizabal P., & Irisarri A. M. (2010). Fracture and fatigue behaviour of aluminium matrix composite automotive pistons. Applied Composite Materials, 17(1), 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10443–009–9117–3
Garimella A., Bandhu Ghosh S., & Bandyopadhyay–Ghosh S. (2026). A comprehensive study of the impact on the microstructure and corrosion behavior of magnesium alloy–based porous bone implants. Materials Today: Proceedings, 116, 209–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.04.027
Grün N. G., Holweg P., Tangl S., Eichler J., Berger L., van den Beucken J. J. J. P., Löffler J. F., Klestil T., & Weinberg A. M. (2018). Comparison of a resorbable magnesium implant in small and large growing–animal models. Acta Biomaterialia, 78, 378–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2018.07.044
Hack J. E., Page R. A., & Leverant G. R. (1984). Tensile and fatigue behavior of aluminum oxide fiber reinforced magnesium composites: Part I. Fiber fraction and orientation. Metallurgical Transactions A, 15(7), 1389–1396. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02648568
Haghshenas M. (2017). Mechanical characteristics of biodegradable magnesium matrix composites: A review. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 5(2), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2017.05.001
Han H.–S., Loffredo S., Jun I., Edwards J., Kim Y.–C., Seok H.–K., Witte F., Mantovani D., & Glyn–Jones S. (2019). Current status and outlook on the clinical translation of biodegradable metals. Materials Today, 23, 57–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2018.05.018
He M., Chen L., Yin M., Xu S., & Liang Z. (2023). Review on magnesium and magnesium–based alloys as biomaterials for bone immobilization. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 23, 4396–4419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.02.037
Heimann R. B. (2021). Magnesium alloys for biomedical application: Advanced corrosion control through surface coating. Surface and Coatings Technology, 405, 126521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2020.126521
Hotchkiss K. M., Clark N. M., & Olivares–Navarrete R. (2018). Macrophage response to hydrophilic biomaterials regulates MSC recruitment and T–helper cell populations. Biomaterials, 182, 202–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.08.029
Hua Z., Tang L., Li L., Wu M., & Fu J. (2023). Environmental biotechnology and the involving biological process using graphene–based biocompatible material. Chemosphere, 339, 139771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139771
Huan Z., Zhou J., & Duszczyk J. (2010). Magnesium–based composites with improved in vitro surface biocompatibility. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine, 21(12), 3163–3169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10856–010–4165–7
Huang T., Cheng J., & Zheng Y. F. (2014). In vitro degradation and biocompatibility of Fe–Pd and Fe–Pt composites fabricated by spark plasma sintering. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 35, 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2013.10.023
Hung C.–C., Chaya A., Liu K., Verdelis K., & Sfeir C. (2019). The role of magnesium ions in bone regeneration involves the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. Acta Biomaterialia, 98, 246–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2019.06.001
Hussein M. A., Azeem M. A., Kumar A. M., & Emara N. M. (2022). Processing and in vitro corrosion analysis of sustainable and economical eggshell reinforced Mg and Mg–Zr matrix composite for biomedical applications. Materials Today Communications, 32, 103944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.103944
Imwinkelried T., Beck S., Iizuka T., & Schaller B. (2013). Effect of a plasmaelectrolytic coating on the strength retention of in vivo and in vitro degraded magnesium implants. Acta Biomaterialia, 9(10), 8643–8649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2012.08.047
Imwinkelried T., Beck S., & Schaller B. (2020). Pre–clinical testing of human size magnesium implants in miniature pigs: Implant degradation and bone fracture healing at multiple implantation sites. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 108, 110389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.110389
Jayasathyakawin S., Ravichandran M., Baskar N., Anand Chairman C., & Balasundaram R. (2020). Magnesium matrix composite for biomedical applications through powder metallurgy—Review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 27, 736–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.12.003
Jiang Q. C., Wang H. Y., Ma B. X., Wang Y., & Zhao F. (2005). Fabrication of B4C particulate reinforced magnesium matrix composite by powder metallurgy. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 386(1–2), 177–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2004.06.015
Jurczyk M. U., ?urawski J., Wirstlein P. K., Kowalski K., & Jurczyk M. (2020). Response of inflammatory cells to biodegradable ultra–fine grained Mg–based composites. Micron, 129, 102796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2019.102796
Khorashadizade F., Abazari S., Rajabi M., Bakhsheshi–Rad H. R., Ismail A. F., Sharif S., Ramakrishna S., & Berto F. (2021). Overview of magnesium–ceramic composites: Mechanical, corrosion and biological properties. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 15, 6034–6066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.10.141
Kim B. J., Piao Y., Wufuer M., Son W.–C., & Choi T. H. (2018). Biocompatibility and efficiency of biodegradable magnesium–based plates and screws in the facial fracture model of beagles. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 76(5), 1055.e1–1055.e9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2018.01.015
Kim T., See C. W., Li X., & Zhu D. (2020). Orthopedic implants and devices for bone fractures and defects: Past, present and perspective. Engineered Regeneration, 1, 6–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engreg.2020.05.003
Krishnan R., Pandiaraj S., Muthusamy S., Panchal H., Alsoufi M. S., Ibrahim A. M. M., & Elsheikh A. (2022). Biodegradable magnesium metal matrix composites for biomedical implants: synthesis, mechanical performance, and corrosion behavior—A review. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 20, 650–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.06.178
Kumar K., Das A., & Prasad S. B. (2021). Recent developments in biodegradable magnesium matrix composites for orthopaedic applications: A review based on biodegradability, mechanical and biocompatibility perspective. Materials Today: Proceedings, 44, 2038–2042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.12.133
Kumar N., & Soren S. (2020). Selection of reinforcement for Al/Mg alloy metal matrix composites. Materials Today: Proceedings, 21, 1605–1609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.11.238
Kumar R., & Katyal P. (2022). Effects of alloying elements on performance of biodegradable magnesium alloy. Materials Today: Proceedings, 56, 2443–2450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.08.233
Kundurti S. C., Sharma A., Tambe P., & Kumar A. (2022). Fabrication of surface metal matrix composites for structural applications using friction stir processing—A review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 56, 1468–1477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.12.337
Ku?nierczyk K., & Basista M. (2017). Recent advances in research on magnesium alloys and magnesium–calcium phosphate composites as biodegradable implant materials. Journal of Biomaterials Applications, 31(6), 878–900. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885328216657271
Li D., Zhang D., Yuan Q., Liu L., Li H., Xiong L., Guo X., Yan Y., Yu K., Dai Y., Xiao T., Li Y., & Wen C. (2022). In vitro and in vivo assessment of the effect of biodegradable magnesium alloys on osteogenesis. Acta Biomaterialia, 141, 454–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2021.12.032
Li H., Peng Q., Li X., Li K., Han Z., & Fang D. (2014). Microstructures, mechanical and cytocompatibility of degradable Mg–Zn based orthopedic biomaterials. Materials & Design, 58, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.01.031
Li H., Wang P., Lin G., & Huang J. (2021). The role of rare earth elements in biodegradable metals: A review. Acta Biomaterialia, 129, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2021.05.014
Li H., Wen J., Liu Y., He J., Shi H., & Tian P. (2020). Progress in research on biodegradable magnesium alloys: A review. Advanced Engineering Materials, 22(7), 2000213. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202000213
Li N., & Zheng Y. (2013). Novel magnesium alloys developed for biomedical application: A review. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 29(6), 489–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2013.02.005
Liu C., Ren Z., Xu Y., Pang S., Zhao X., & Zhao Y. (2018). Biodegradable magnesium alloys developed as bone repair materials: A review. Scanning, 2018, 9216314. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9216314
Liu W., Jiang L., Cao L., Mei J., Wu G., Zhang S., Xiao L., Wang S., & Ding W. (2014). Fatigue behavior and plane–strain fracture toughness of sand–cast Mg–10Gd–3Y–0.5Zr magnesium alloy. Materials & Design, 59, 466–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.03.026
Liu Y. B., Lim S. C., Lu L., & Lai M. O. (1994). Recent development in the fabrication of metal matrix–particulate composites using powder metallurgy techniques. Journal of Materials Science, 29(8), 1999–2007. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01154673
Loi F., Córdova L. A., Zhang R., Pajarinen J., Lin T., Goodman S. B., & Yao Z. (2016). The effects of immunomodulation by macrophage subsets on osteogenesis in vitro. Stem Cell Research & Therapy, 7(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13287–016–0276–5
Ma J., Zhao N., Betts L., & Zhu D. (2016). Bio–adaption between magnesium alloy stent and the blood vessel: A review. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 32(9), 815–826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2015.12.018
Madhusudhan Reddy G., Sambasiva Rao A., & Srinivasa Rao K. (2013). Friction stir processing for enhancement of wear resistance of ZM21 magnesium alloy. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 66(1), 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666–012–0163–4
Martinez D. C., Dobkowska A., Marek R., ?wieka H., Jaroszewicz J., P?oci?ski T., Donik ?., Helmholz H., Luthringer–Feyerabend B., Zeller–Plumhoff B., Willumeit–Römer R., & ?wi?szkowski W. (2023). In vitro and in vivo degradation behavior of Mg–0.45Zn–0.45Ca (ZX00) screws for orthopedic applications. Bioactive Materials, 28, 132–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.05.004
Mathew A., Hassan H. W., Korostynska O., Westad F., Mota–Silva E., Menichetti L., & Mirtaheri P. (2023). In vivo analysis of a biodegradable magnesium alloy implant in an animal model using near–infrared spectroscopy. Sensors, 23(6), 3063. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063063
Medhat D., Rodríguez C. I., & Infante A. (2019). Immunomodulatory effects of MSCs in bone healing. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(21), 5467. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20215467
Meher A., Mahapatra M. M., Samal P., & Vundavilli P. R. (2021). Abrasive wear behaviour of TiB2 reinforced in–situ synthesized magnesium RZ5 alloy based metal matrix composites. Metals and Materials International, 27(9), 3652–3665. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12540–020–00746–1
Mohanasundaram S., Bhong M., Vatsa G., Prasad Verma R., Srivastava M., Kumar G., Mohammed K. A., Singh D., & Raj Gupta L. (2023). Mg–based metal matrix composite in biomedical applications: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.043
Munir K., Lin J., Li Y., Wright P., & Wen C. (2023). Novel carbon nanotubes reinforced Ti28Nb35.4Zr matrix composites fabricated via direct metal deposition for bone implant applications. Materialia, 29, 101786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2023.101786
Narayanan T. S. N. S., Park I.–S., & Lee M.–H. (2015). Surface modification of magnesium and its alloys for biomedical applications. In Surface modification of magnesium and its alloys for biomedical applications (pp. 29–87). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978–1–78242–077–4.00002–4
Nene S. S., Estrin Y., Kashyap B. P., Prabhu N., Al–Samman T., Luthringer B. J. C., & Willumeit R. (2016). Towards microstructure–cytocompatibility relationship in ultralight Mg–4Li–1Ca (LX41) alloy for degradable implant applications. BioNanoMaterials, 17(3–4), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1515/bnm–2015–0019
Neves C. S., Sousa I., Freitas M. A., Moreira L., Costa C., Teixeira J. P., Fraga S., Pinto E., Almeida A., Scharnagl N., Zheludkevich M. L., Ferreira M. G. S., & Tedim J. (2021). Insights into corrosion behaviour of uncoated Mg alloys for biomedical applications in different aqueous media. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 13, 1908–1922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.05.090
Nie K. B., Wang X. J., Deng K. K., Hu X. S., & Wu K. (2021). Magnesium matrix composite reinforced by nanoparticles—A review. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 9(1), 57–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2020.08.018
Nirala A., Soren S., Garg R., Kumar R., Shrivastava A. K., Kumar N., Prasad H., Singh D. B., & Yadav J. K. (2021). Study of biodegradable magnesium metal matrix composite: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 46, 6592–6595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.04.063
Persaud–Sharma D., & McGoron A. (2012). Biodegradable magnesium alloys: A review of material development and applications. Journal of Biomimetics, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, 12, 25–39. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/JBBTE.12.25
Prakasam M., Locs J., Salma–Ancane K., Loca D., Largeteau A., & Berzina–Cimdina L. (2017). Biodegradable materials and metallic implants—A review. Journal of Functional Biomaterials, 8(4), 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb8040044
Prestat M., & Thierry D. (2021). Corrosion of titanium under simulated inflammation conditions: Clinical context and in vitro investigations. Acta Biomaterialia, 136, 72–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2021.10.002
Pulido–González N., Torres B., García–Rodríguez S., Rodrigo P., Bonache V., Hidalgo–Manrique P., Mohedano M., & Rams J. (2020). Mg–1Zn–1Ca alloy for biomedical applications. Influence of the secondary phases on the mechanical and corrosion behaviour. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 831, 154735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.154735
Purohit R., Dewang Y., Rana R. S., Koli D., & Dwivedi S. (2018). Fabrication of magnesium matrix composites using powder metallurgy process and testing of properties. Materials Today: Proceedings, 5(2), 6009–6017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2017.12.204
Putra N. E., Mirzaali M. J., Apachitei I., Zhou J., & Zadpoor A. A. (2020). Multi–material additive manufacturing technologies for Ti–, Mg–, and Fe–based biomaterials for bone substitution. Acta Biomaterialia, 109, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2020.03.037
Qi L., Ju L., Zhou J., Li S., Zhang T., & Tian W. (2017). Tensile and fatigue behavior of carbon fiber reinforced magnesium composite fabricated by liquid–solid extrusion following vacuum pressure infiltration. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 721, 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.05.312
Qiao K., Zhang T., Wang K., Yuan S., Zhang S., Wang L., Wang Z., Peng P., Cai J., Liu C., & Wang W. (2021). Mg/ZrO2 metal matrix nanocomposites fabricated by friction stir processing: Microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion behavior. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2021.605171
Radha R., & Sreekanth D. (2017). Insight of magnesium alloys and composites for orthopedic implant applications—A review. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 5(3), 286–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2017.08.003
Rahim M. I., Szafra?ski S. P., Ingendoh–Tsakmakidis A., Stiesch M., & Mueller P. P. (2020). Evidence for inoculum size and gas interfaces as critical factors in bacterial biofilm formation on magnesium implants in an animal model. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 186, 110684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.110684
Rahman M., Dutta N. K., & Roy Choudhury N. (2020). Magnesium alloys with tunable interfaces as bone implant materials. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00564
Ratna Sunil B., Sampath Kumar T. S., Chakkingal U., Nandakumar V., & Doble M. (2014). Nano–hydroxyapatite reinforced AZ31 magnesium alloy by friction stir processing: A solid state processing for biodegradable metal matrix composites. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine, 25(4), 975–988. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10856–013–5127–7
Razavi M., Fathi M. H., & Meratian M. (2010). Bio–corrosion behavior of magnesium–fluorapatite nanocomposite for biomedical applications. Materials Letters, 64(22), 2487–2490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2010.07.079
Saha S., Lestari W., Dini C., Sarian M. N., Hermawan H., Barão V. A. R., Sukotjo C., & Takoudis C. (2022). Corrosion in Mg–alloy biomedical implants—The strategies to reduce the impact of the corrosion inflammatory reaction and microbial activity. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 10(12), 3306–3326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2022.10.025
Sanchez A. H. M., Luthringer B. J. C., Feyerabend F., & Willumeit R. (2015). Mg and Mg alloys: How comparable are in vitro and in vivo corrosion rates? A review. Acta Biomaterialia, 13, 16–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2014.11.048
Saxena A., Saxena K. K., Jain V. K., Rajput S. K., & Pathak B. N. (2023). A review of reinforcements and process parameters for powder metallurgy–processed metal matrix composites. Materials Today: Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.02.227
Schaller B., Saulacic N., Beck S., Imwinkelried T., Goh B. T., Nakahara K., Hofstetter W., & Iizuka T. (2016). In vivo degradation of a new concept of magnesium–based rivet–screws in the minipig mandibular bone. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 69, 247–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2016.06.085
Schaller B., Saulacic N., Beck S., Imwinkelried T., Liu E. W. Y., Nakahara K., Hofstetter W., & Iizuka T. (2017). Osteosynthesis of partial rib osteotomy in a miniature pig model using human standard–sized magnesium plate/screw systems: Effect of cyclic deformation on implant integrity and bone healing. Journal of Cranio–Maxillofacial Surgery, 45(6), 862–871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcms.2017.03.018
Schaller B., Saulacic N., Imwinkelried T., Beck S., Liu E. W. Y., Gralla J., Nakahara K., Hofstetter W., & Iizuka T. (2016). In vivo degradation of magnesium plate/screw osteosynthesis implant systems: Soft and hard tissue response in a calvarial model in miniature pigs. Journal of Cranio–Maxillofacial Surgery, 44(3), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcms.2015.12.009
Seetharaman S., Sankaranarayanan D., & Gupta M. (2023). Magnesium–based temporary implants: Potential, current status, applications, and challenges. Journal of Functional Biomaterials, 14(6), 324. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb14060324
Sekar P., Narendranath S., & Desai V. (2021). Recent progress in in vivo studies and clinical applications of magnesium based biodegradable implants—A review. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 9(4), 1147–1163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2020.11.001
Selders G. S., Fetz A. E., Radic M. Z., & Bowlin G. L. (2017). An overview of the role of neutrophils in innate immunity, inflammation and host–biomaterial integration. Regenerative Biomaterials, 4(1), 55–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/rb/rbw041
Sezer N., Evis Z., Kayhan S. M., Tahmasebifar A., & Koç M. (2018). Review of magnesium–based biomaterials and their applications. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 6(1), 23–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2018.02.003
Sezer N., Evis Z., & Koç M. (2021). Additive manufacturing of biodegradable magnesium implants and scaffolds: Review of the recent advances and research trends. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 9(2), 392–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2020.09.014
Shakil A., Singh S. K., Rajak B., Gautam R. K., & Rao U. S. (2020). In situ infiltration synthesis and characterization of magnesium metal matrix composite. Materials Today: Proceedings, 21, 1223–1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.01.073
Shamekh M., Pugh M., & Medraj M. (2012). Understanding the reaction mechanism of in–situ synthesized (TiC–TiB2)/AZ91 magnesium matrix composites. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 135(1), 193–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2012.04.054
Shan Z., Xie X., Wu X., Zhuang S., & Zhang C. (2022). Development of degradable magnesium–based metal implants and their function in promoting bone metabolism (A review). Journal of Orthopaedic Translation, 36, 184–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jot.2022.09.013
Sharma S. K., Saxena K. K., Malik V., Mohammed K. A., Prakash C., Buddhi D., & Dixit S. (2022). Significance of alloying elements on the mechanical characteristics of Mg–based materials for biomedical applications. Crystals, 12(8), 1138. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12081138
Sheikh Z., Najeeb S., Khurshid Z., Verma V., Rashid H., & Glogauer M. (2015). Biodegradable materials for bone repair and tissue engineering applications. Materials, 8(9), 5744–5794. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma8095273
Shen Z., Zhao M., Zhou X., Yang H., Liu J., Guo H., Zheng Y., & Yang J.–A. (2019). A numerical corrosion–fatigue model for biodegradable Mg alloy stents. Acta Biomaterialia, 97, 671–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2019.08.004
Shin S. E., & Bae D. H. (2018). Fatigue behavior of Al2024 alloy–matrix nanocomposites reinforced with multi–walled carbon nanotubes. Composites Part B: Engineering, 134, 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.09.034
Shunmugasamy V. C., AbdelGawad M., Sohail M. U., Ibrahim T., Khan T., Seers T. D., & Mansoor B. (2023). In vitro and in vivo study on fine–grained Mg–Zn–RE–Zr alloy as a biodegradeable orthopedic implant produced by friction stir processing. Bioactive Materials, 28, 448–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.06.010
Sommer N. G., Gieringer S., Schwarze U. Y., Weinberg A.–M., Al–Samman T., & Estrin Y. (2022). In vivo performance of magnesium alloy LX41 in a rat model. Processes, 10(11), 2222. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10112222
Soorya Prakash K., Balasundar P., Nagaraja S., Gopal P. M., & Kavimani V. (2016). Mechanical and wear behaviour of Mg–SiC–Gr hybrid composites. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 4(3), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2016.08.001
Stürznickel J., Delsmann M. M., Jungesblut O. D., Stücker R., Knorr C., Rolvien T., Kertai M., & Rupprecht M. (2021). Safety and performance of biodegradable magnesium–based implants in children and adolescents. Injury, 52(8), 2265–2271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2021.03.037
Su J., Teng J., Xu Z., & Li Y. (2020). Biodegradable magnesium–matrix composites: A review. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials, 27(6), 724–744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613–020–1987–2
Suljevic O., Fischerauer S. F., Weinberg A. M., & Sommer N. G. (2022). Immunological reaction to magnesium–based implants for orthopedic applications. What do we know so far? A systematic review on in vivo studies. Materials Today Bio, 15, 100315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100315
Sun Y., Helmholz H., & Willumeit–Römer R. (2021). Preclinical in vivo research of magnesium–based implants for fracture treatment: A systematic review of animal model selection and study design. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 9(2), 351–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2020.09.011
Sunil B. R., Reddy G. P. K., Patle H., & Dumpala R. (2016). Magnesium based surface metal matrix composites by friction stir processing. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 4(1), 52–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2016.02.001
Tahriri M., Moztarzadeh F., Tahriri A., Eslami H., Khoshroo K., Jazayeri H. E., & Tayebi L. (2018). Evaluation of the in vitro biodegradation and biological behavior of poly(lactic–co–glycolic acid)/nano–fluorhydroxyapatite composite microsphere–sintered scaffold for bone tissue engineering. Journal of Bioactive and Compatible Polymers, 33(2), 146–159. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883911517720814
Tian P., & Liu X. (2015). Surface modification of biodegradable magnesium and its alloys for biomedical applications. Regenerative Biomaterials, 2(2), 135–151. https://doi.org/10.1093/rb/rbu013
Törne K., Örnberg A., & Weissenrieder J. (2017). Influence of strain on the corrosion of magnesium alloys and zinc in physiological environments. Acta Biomaterialia, 48, 541–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2016.10.030
Tsakiris V., Tardei C., & Clicinschi F. M. (2021). Biodegradable Mg alloys for orthopedic implants—A review. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 9(6), 1884–1905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2021.06.024
Vaidya A. R., & Lewandowski J. J. (1996). Effects of SiCp size and volume fraction on the high cycle fatigue behavior of AZ91D magnesium alloy composites. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 220(1–2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921–5093(96)10464–0
Vedabouriswaran G., & Aravindan S. (2018). Development and characterization studies on magnesium alloy (RZ 5) surface metal matrix composites through friction stir processing. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 6(2), 145–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2018.03.001
Velnar T., Bunc G., Klobucar R., & Gradisnik L. (2016). Biomaterials and host versus graft response: A short review. Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2016.525
Venkateswarlu B., Ratna Sunil B., & Sunil Kumar R. (2024). Microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of Rare Earths (RE) containing Mg–Zn alloy for biomedical applications. Materials Today: Proceedings, 102, 6–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.02.342
Venkateswarlu B., Sunil B. R., & Kumar R. S. (2023). Magnesium based alloys and composites: Revolutionized biodegradable temporary implants and strategies to enhance their performance. Materialia, 27, 101680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2023.101680
Venugopal S., Baskar S., & Samuel P. N. F. (2023). Study on the mechanical behaviour of metal matrix composites (MMC). Materials Today: Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.01.208
Virtanen S. (2011). Biodegradable Mg and Mg alloys: Corrosion and biocompatibility. Materials Science and Engineering: B, 176(20), 1600–1608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2011.05.028
Walker J., Shadanbaz S., Woodfield T. B. F., Staiger M. P., & Dias G. J. (2014). Magnesium biomaterials for orthopedic application: A review from a biological perspective. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials, 102(6), 1316–1331. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.b.33113
Wang G., Wang S., Yin Z., Yang X., Wen D., & Sun Y. (2023). Synthesis of Ni–WC/Al–Ni functionally graded coating with advanced corrosion and wear resistance on AZ91D Mg alloy by laser cladding. Materials Letters, 333, 133645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2022.133645
Wang H. Y., Jiang Q. C., Li X. L., & Wang J. G. (2003). In situ synthesis of TiC/Mg composites in molten magnesium. Scripta Materialia, 48(9), 1349–1354. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359–6462(03)00014–9
Wang H. Y., Jiang Q. C., Wang Y., Ma B. X., & Zhao F. (2004). Fabrication of TiB2 particulate reinforced magnesium matrix composites by powder metallurgy. Materials Letters, 58(27–28), 3509–3513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2004.04.038
Wang J., Dou J., Wang Z., Hu C., Yu H., & Chen C. (2022). Research progress of biodegradable magnesium–based biomedical materials: A review. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 923, 166377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.166377
Wang Y., Wang H.–Y., Xiu K., Wang H.–Y., & Jiang Q.–C. (2006). Fabrication of TiB2 particulate reinforced magnesium matrix composites by two–step processing method. Materials Letters, 60(12), 1533–1537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2005.11.065
Wen Y., Liu Q., Wang J., Yang Q., Zhao W., Qiao B., Li Y., & Jiang D. (2021). Improving in vitro and in vivo corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of Mg–1Zn–1Sn alloys by microalloying with Sr. Bioactive Materials, 6(12), 4654–4669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.04.043
Witte F. (2010). The history of biodegradable magnesium implants: A review. Acta Biomaterialia, 6(5), 1680–1692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2010.02.028
Wu L., Feyerabend F., Schilling A. F., Willumeit–Römer R., & Luthringer B. J. C. (2015). Effects of extracellular magnesium extract on the proliferation and differentiation of human osteoblasts and osteoclasts in coculture. Acta Biomaterialia, 27, 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2015.08.042
Xia J., Lewandowski J. J., & Willard M. A. (2020). Tension and fatigue behavior of Al–2124A/SiC–particulate metal matrix composites. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 770, 138518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.138518
Xin Y., Hu T., & Chu P. K. (2011). In vitro studies of biomedical magnesium alloys in a simulated physiological environment: A review. Acta Biomaterialia, 7(4), 1452–1459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2010.12.004
Xu L., Liu X., Sun K., Fu R., & Wang G. (2022). Corrosion behavior in magnesium–based alloys for biomedical applications. Materials, 15(7), 2613. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072613
Xue N., Ding X., Huang R., Jiang R., Huang H., Pan X., Min W., Chen J., Duan J.–A., Liu P., & Wang Y. (2022). Bone tissue engineering in the treatment of bone defects. Pharmaceuticals, 15(7), 879. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph15070879
Yang J., Cui F., & Lee I. Seop. (2011). Surface modifications of magnesium alloys for biomedical applications. Annals of Biomedical Engineering, 39(7), 1857–1871. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439–011–0300–y
Yang J., Cui F., Lee I. Seop., & Wang X. (2010). Plasma surface modification of magnesium alloy for biomedical application. Surface and Coatings Technology, 205, S182–S187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2010.07.045
Zhang E., Yin D., Xu L., Yang L., & Yang K. (2009). Microstructure, mechanical and corrosion properties and biocompatibility of Mg–Zn–Mn alloys for biomedical application. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 29(3), 987–993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2008.08.024
Zhang J., Jiang Y., Shang Z., Zhao B., Jiao M., Liu W., Cheng M., Zhai B., Guo Y., Liu B., Shi X., & Ma B. (2021). Biodegradable metals for bone defect repair: A systematic review and meta–analysis based on animal studies. Bioactive Materials, 6(11), 4027–4052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.03.035
Zhang X., Ba Z., Wang Z., He X., Shen C., & Wang Q. (2013). Influence of silver addition on microstructure and corrosion behavior of Mg–Nd–Zn–Zr alloys for biomedical application. Materials Letters, 100, 188–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2013.03.061
Zhao D., Witte F., Lu F., Wang J., Li J., & Qin L. (2017). Current status on clinical applications of magnesium–based orthopaedic implants: A review from clinical translational perspective. Biomaterials, 112, 287–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.10.017
Zhao T., Chu Z., Ma J., & Ouyang L. (2022). Immunomodulation effect of biomaterials on bone formation. Journal of Functional Biomaterials, 13(3), 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb13030103
Zhou H., Liang B., Jiang H., Deng Z., & Yu K. (2021). Magnesium–based biomaterials as emerging agents for bone repair and regeneration: From mechanism to application. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys, 9(3), 779–804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2021.03.004
Zhou X., Zhang Z., Li X., Zhou L., Zhang X., & Chen M. (2022). Microstructure and phase evolution characteristics of the in situ synthesis of TiC–reinforced AZ91D magnesium matrix composites. Materials, 15(4), 1278. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041278
Zhu S. J., & Iizuka T. (2003). Fatigue behavior of Al18B4O33 whisker–framework reinforced Al matrix composites at high temperatures. Composites Science and Technology, 63(2), 265–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266–3538(02)00208–7
Zhu W., Guo J., Yang W., Tao Z., Lan X., Wang L., Xu J., Qin L., & Su Y. (2022). Biodegradable magnesium implant enhances angiogenesis and alleviates medication–related osteonecrosis of the jaw in rats. Journal of Orthopaedic Translation, 33, 153–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jot.2022.03.004